Notes from Leo Paul S. deAlvarez'a graduate course on ARISTOTLE'S POLITICS Taken by Stanly Oakes. Corrected by C. A. Bates, Jr. ARGUMENTS BOOK I Natural Associations or Partnerships or Communities: 1. The household--purpose is to meet daily needs. 2. The village--the union of several households to meet more than daily needs through the division of labor. Disappears when the polis takes shape. 3. The polis--for the purpose of self-sufficiency, living well and the complete life. It is by nature but it must be established. Natural Relationships in the Household: 1. Husband-wife or man-woman--men and women naturally get together for the purpose of procreation. The male/ female relationship is political in that it is relationship of equals except that the one who rules doesn't change as it does in most political rule. 2. Master-slave--a relationship based on foresight for the sake of self-preservation. This relationship is the basis for all rule. (Including kingly rule?) Foresight is the ability to know ends and to take care ones's self. It is the rule of the nous over the body or passions ie people without nous. Like taking care of puppies. Basis for despotic rule. Absolute foresight=absolute rule or mastery Absolute non-foresight=absolute ruled or slavery Parent-child--basis for kingly rule and considered more ancient. This is the key to understanding that the gods are thought of as because god is like a father. This is the basis for the rule of the wise and the rule of older over younger. The Meaning of Natural: Arises by necessity not choice; implies inequality bec. there are natural inclinations to associate which produce a natural hierarchy which are inherently not equal; aims at the greatest good. The highest good is a life of deliberation. The Natural Hierarchy: 1. Nature is wise, beneficent, and purposive. Therefore, we have a natural hierarchy. 2. The rule in the household of male over female, master over slave, and father over children are the result of nature's hierarchy. The Genetic Method or Organic Method vs. The Analytic Method: 1. The Genetic Method--Book I Chapter 2 It describes that the best way to study things is organically ie from birth to growth. This is the most beautiful way of understanding things bec. it is acc. to nature. The 3 natural relationships and the 3 natural associations. How the household develops into the polis. 2. The Analytic Method--Book I Chapters 1 and 3 discuss the method of analyzing the whole by looking at its parts. Chapter 3 begins as if chapter 2 doesn't exist. This is the clear method of understanding things. Beast and god: 1. The beast --The man who is like a beast is Achilles. He is "without clan, without law, and without hearth." As a result, he is a man at war with every man which is what Hobbes describes as the state of nature. He is incapable of participating in the political. Also, he is like an isolated chess piece. 2. The god--The gods are always at leisure with nothing to do and are, therefore, completely self-sufficient. If one is self-sufficient, he doesn't need the polis. Cyclops is the example of one who is god-like and super-political bec. he has no need to participate in the polis. Homer says (quoted by Aristotle) that "each acts as law to his children and wives." The rest of the passage describes them "living in caves without customary laws or assemblies. He pays no attention to others." The Polis: 1. The polis is the most authoritative (right to rule over another) community. It comes into existence for the sake of living, but it exists for living well. Though it is by nature, it still must be instituted. Bec. man has a partnership in speech, the polis makes clear the just and the unjust. 2. Purpose of the polis is to make clear the just and unjust by means of speech. 3. If the end of the polis is living together, it is democracy. If the end of the polis is protecting property, then it is an oligarchy. If the end is defense and exchange, then it is a mutual contract. The end of the polis is the noble life. 4. The problems with the polis: a. It's imaginary; a small agrarian republic; obsolete; and tends to fascism in the modern scheme. Argument for Natural Slavery: 1. The master-slave relationship is the basis for all rule. It is the rule of the foresighted over the non-forsighted. The foresighted are those who use the nous of the soul to determine ends and proper roles. Husbands have more foresight than wives; parents more than children; the one who has absolute foresight is naturally a master and can exercise rule over those who have no foresight ie those who are naturally slaves. Slaves can only become human by being possessed by the master; his soul is cared for by sharing in the common life of the master. A slave without a master is random. 2. The opposing view is that slavery is not natural because there is no such thing as natural foresight, therefore there is no natural slave, and therefore, there are only slaves by law or convention and rests on force. The only possible basis for rule in this case is convention. Greeks Were Meant to Rule Over Barbarians 1. From a poem by Euripides. 2. The point here is that though barbarians have a soul and a body, they don't recognize the difference w/in the soul of the nous and the appetites. The nous rules over the appetites politically whereas the soul rules over the body despotically. Barbarians can't tell the difference between females and slaves and treat all their women like slaves. They rule despotically over them instead of politically. Therefore, it is obvious that they don't have foresight and should be ruled by those who do. Are passions and appetites the same thing? (Soul -- nous and appetites Body -- passions and body?) Nous rules over appetites politically Soul rules over body despotically 3. Nature wants to make these differences apparent but doesn't. Differences in the soul are difficult to to see. 4. Their work is the work of the body; they are capable of belonging to someone; participate in reason only by observing it; and not perceiving reason, obey their passions (1254b16-24). Household Management or Economic Rule Are these the same? 1. This is the rule to the advantage of those ruled and accidently to the advantage of the one ruling. 2. It the acquiring and management of necessities but most importantly, it is the proper ordering of the lives of the people in the household. 3. What should one possess is the true economics cf Walden Pond. Acquisition of those things beyond the necessities is the lower part of household management. 4. It is the opposing form of rule to despotic rule which is to the advantage of the ruler. Argument for Conventional Slavery: 1. There is a double sense to slavery and the slave. 2. Some say that force and power are illegitimate standards upon which to justify slavery. That is, if you conquer someone, then you have a right to be their master. 3. Advocates of natural slavery respond with the view that virtue is always preeminent in something good and their is no force without virtue. a. Some say that the rule of the superior is just. b. Others that justice is benevolence and hunting slaves isn't benevolent. c. The point acc. to A is that nature wants to make the difference but often doesn't. Natural Forms of Acquisition: 1. Natural acquisition is for obtaining necessities and is indicative of the type of life you will live. It is 5 types. (1256a30) a. Nomads with tame animals give the appearance of leisure and seem to be the most political. b. Farming--most necessary for the polis and is the most political as a result. (Why???) c. Piracy or robbery is natural because it allows self-sufficiency. d. Fishing (What's the defining principle?) (1258a19) e. Hunting--Acquisition ends in war but it's by nature bec. it's a type of hunting and should be used against beasts and those unwilling to be ruled. One can go to was to see that civilized order is established. Acquisition: 1. Unnatural acquisition (or commercial business) is acquiring beyond necessities and is unlimited, whereas natural acquisition is acquiring for use in the household and is therefore limited. 2. A shoe has two uses. It can be acquired as a shoe or as a medium of exchange. 3. Necessities==Excesses and Shortages==Exchanging Necessities==Foreign Exchange==Money to make exchange easier==Retail Trade or Commerce. 4. There are two natural relationships and they enable procreation and self-preservation. a. Self-preservation is the acquisition of the necessities and only the necessities, therefore it's limited. b. Money enables unlimited acquisition and therefore assumes that nature is not beneficent and must be overcome. Eg. Midas's god was Dionysius, the god of fertility, who shows Midas that artificial fertility is destructive. 5. Usury--It is the breeding of money with money and is the most unnatural. It implies that nature is unlimited and therefore not teleological. Procreation is not as important and self-preservation of the individual replaces preservation of the community. The family takes second place and yuppies don't have kids. Money is unnatural but its purpose is commerce. Usury uses money which is unnatural in an unnatural manner. You can't see what's being exchanged. a. The statesman should be serious about living well not just living. Amasis and His Foot Pan: 1. Amasis had his subjects worship a golden foot pan and A quotes this since Amasis was a peasant who became a Pharaoh. People like the distinction of rule. Question: What is the practical list of acquisition in Book I Chapter 11? 1. Husbandry and agriculture--natural. 2. Trade, usury, and wage labor.--unnatural exchange. a. In wage labor the master wanted to pay $ for labor and then not be responsible for the worker's life. 3. Lumbering and mining--part natural and part not. Types of Rule: 1. Kingly rule--based on affection and age. 2. Political rule--ruler and ruled are of the same stock and the one ruling changes places except in husband- wife relationship. ****************** BOOK II Best Regimes in Speech, in Actuality and others. Aristotle's Critique of Plato's Republic 1. Socrates made the suggestion that the partnership of the polis could have all things in common, including wives children and property. This is pure communism. 2. Aristotle's chief criticism of Socrates was that unity is possible in thought but not with respect to bodies. Socrates' mistake led to all kinds of problems. 3. For example: children and women a. Things that are held in common receive the least care. All slight them in a similar fashion. b. Children look like their parents and this makes it more difficult to have them in common. c. Sacrileges are committed unknowingly. Children kill their parents but don't know it's their parents. It's the same with incest. Expiations cannot be performed if the crime is unknown. Homosexuality is condoned. d. Affection for what is one's own and for what is dear is eliminated. e. How are children to transferred between the farmer class and the guardian class? 4. For example: property being held in common. a. Inequities and the petty things will cause factions. b. No one cares for it bec. all do. c. Liberality is gone without individual ownership. d. Property isn't the problem; depravity is. e. What about the farming class? Do they participate in the oneness? f. The happiness of the rulers is undermined. Aristotle's Critique of Plato's LAWS: 1. Rejected as too oligarchic; not enough equality; and it's a mix of tyranny and democracy. That is, it lacks a wise monarchic element. a. Compels the wealthy to attend the assembly and picking the officials from the wealthy. Also, it is not good to choose from those previously elected. Aristotle's Critique of Phaleas' Regime (cf. modern socialism) Equality of possessions 1. To what extent does property cause of the evils in the polis and does levelling property ameliorate them? a. To level property the poor receive dowries and the rich give them. 2. Problems: a. Children must be limited. b. What is needed is the levelling of desires through education and not just property.(What kind educ.?) c. Men don't steal for necessities but for luxuries. 3. Three classes of desires: a. Necessities Moderate prop. and work b. Beyond necessities Temperance c. Pleasures Philosophy (tyrant enjoys w/o (philosopher enjoys w/o pain bec. he confisates) pain bec. he contemplates.) ********************** Aristotle's Critique of Hippodamus: First of the Urban Planners 1. H felt that politics could be treated as an art. a. This view says that ancestral laws are barbarous or simple and therefore better laws should constantly be created. 2. A says that the model of arts is false. a. The laws depend on habituation and are weakened through change. Children respond properly to to pain and pleasure by means of habit. When they are capable of reasoning, their habituation concurs with it. b. Politics is not based on reason alone. It the rationality of laws over the irrationality of the people. Bec. people are irrational, you need power. c. Pericles wanted to make the city a beautiful artifact but this ruins the character of the people ie he removed the polis from the issue of character. d. Political Rule vs. Rule of the Arts Expert Rule over all Physician rules your areas with power. life absolutely but w/o power. ********** Aristotle's Critique of The Actual Cities--Sparta, Crete and Carthage: 1. Sparta: Sparta is the model because military virtues provide leisure but they are not at leisure because they only learn war. Their leisure is from virtue. a. The problem is they had bad households. Their liberty was based on the helots and this class was a burden to try to supervise. b. The city was indecent with women and the love of money caused women to put pressure on men. Also, women controlled the city bec. men go to war. c. Offices: --The city voted in office holders by lot which was "childish". --The ephors went mad in office bec. no one was their to watch over them. d. King shouldn't be hereditary bec. you can't choose the best person. e. Common meals were billed equally to all persons and not based on ability to pay, therefore it wasn't democratic. f. Admirals cause factions bec. they conflict with the king who is a general for life. Crete: 1. The Cretans were bad politicians bec. they didn't solve the problems between the many and the few. The gov't was dynastic in that only a few families were in power. 2. They also crushed the people in order to have leisure but this led to faction. 3. Crete was more ancient therefore less articulated. 4. Their common meal was better than the Spartans bec. it was paid at public expense. 5. What saves Crete is that it's an island and so the serfs don't revolt. Carthage: 1. The Carthaginians let one man rule all of the offices. 2. They also made wealth a condition of rule and not character. a. They replaced virtue with the conditions necessary for virtue ie wealth. This is an oligarchy. 3. Colonization saves the regime bec. there are groups constantly being sent out to make their fortunes. N.B. Sparta--women; Crete--dynastic; Carthage--oligarchic. N.B. The history of political philosophy is concerned with to what extent passions can be ruled. What extent can the body can be punished for not being one with the mind. Book 2 Chapter 12--The limitation of politics is beatings. BOOK III: The Polis, the Regime and the Citizen Aristotle's View of a Citizen: 1. A citizen is simply one who participates in judging and ruling ie in a democratic regime. a. One isn't a citizen by virtue of habitation. b. Or because he participates in adjudication. 2. One cannot be a citizen only through heredity bec. the regime may change. 3. After a revolution in an unjust polity the citizens are citizens de facto. a. There are only made citizens. b. The question is are you a citizen justly or unjustly? c. A citizen is whoever rules whether justly or unjustly. Is the Virtue of the Good Man Equal to the Virtue of the Good Citizen?: 1. No. The good man is not relative to the polity whereas the good citizens virtue is. 2. Not even in the best regime are they equal because there are different types of citizen required ie some must have virtue for ruling ie prudence. 3. The virtue of the good man and certain good citizens in the good regime are the same when, in the best regime, the ruler is a good man. Conjoins wisdom and rule. 4. The ruler and the ruled: a. Their excellence is different. b. The good citizen who is not ruling does not have prudence which is one of the virtues. c. Only the ruler deliberates and thus has prudence. d. Habituation is based on hearing and gives force to the laws. Right opinion or hearing or habituation is the virtue of the ruled. If habituation is enough to be a citizen, then he needn't be a good man. e. The virtue of the good man is only equal to the virtue of the good man when the good man is ruling in the good regime. Classifications of Regimes: 1. How many regimes are there and what are there differences. a. What are the purposes or ends of political assoc. b. What are the forms of rule. 2. There are 3 purposes or ends of political association. a. Man is by nature a political animal ie he will associate even if he doesn't have to. b. Common benefits lead to the noble life. c. For the sake of life itself ie protection. The Two Kinds of Rule: 1. Despotic Rule--It is for the advantage of the Master. 2. Economic Rule--It is for the benefit of the one being ruled or for common benefit. a. The monarchical rule benefits the ruled only, whereas republican rule benefits all, both ruled and ruler. b. For example, the gym teacher rules his classroom for their physical benefit but he benefits also. c. Only those rules which look to the common advantage, are correct regimes acc. to what is unqualifyedly just. Two Peaks in Book III: 1. The universal kingship is the most natural kind of rule bec. it is the most beneficial. 2. Democratic rule is the most political bec. the chance to be a full citizen is open to the greatest number of people. Remember that citizenship is participating in the ruling offices. Basis for Ruling is in the Soul: Part of Claim to No. Office Deviation the soul Rule from good nous wisdom one king tyranny spirit excellence few aristocracy oligarchy appetites liberty many [regime] democracy 1. The correct regimes are kingship, aristocracy, and [regime] because they are to the common advantage. Kingship and aristocracy rule on the basis of virtue whereas polity finds it difficult to attain virtue except for military virtue. 2. What makes democracy and oligarchy differ is poverty and wealth. The issue is not numbers ie either a minority or a majority but wealth and poverty. a. If the polis is just for living together then democracy is sufficient. b. If for protecting property, then oligarchy is. 3. Aristocracy leads to oligarchy bec. aristocrats begin to define excellence in terms of wealth and not moral virtue. 4. [Regime] leads to democracy when liberty is defined in terms of appetites. It's benefits those w/o means. 5. Democracy is the best of the deviant regimes bec. more people benefit. 6. Tyranny is the worst of the worst bec. the least no. benefit in this deviant regime. 7. Mutual Contract is the rule for mutual defense and exchange. It ignores living well and the common pursuit of excellence and therefore that the excellent have a right to rule. Why Democracy is the Better One of the Authoritative Elements: 1. Because the demos is wealthier, it can do better feasts. 2. The multitude is like one man with many feet and makes a better literary critic. They are better judges about thought. 3. They are more beautiful than individuals ie simply superior. Problems With Democracy: 1. They can't rule in the greatest offices. They are best at judging but not the executive power. 2. They need expert knowledge to choose those "who know" just like it takes a dr. to judge a dr. 3. It turns responsibilities over to unfit people, but they can join together. N.B. The people rule but others govern. Argument for the Laws: 1. Laws guarantee just things, but does not guarantee goodness and justice of individual. 2. One must not have democratic laws in an aristocracy. Even bad constitutions should be preserved and laws should be enacted in relation to the polity whether just or unjust. a. Laws enacted in good regimes are just, and laws enacted in deviant regimes are unjust. 3. Laws cannot determine everything but are general declarations still needing an authoritative body of judges. Argument for Kingship: 0. The excessively virtuous person. a. He is beyond the law and a law to himself. b. He is not equal just as hares can't pass laws against lions. c. Just like the Argonauts got rid of Heracles and people ostracized the superior, you get rid of the superior in equality. 1. Five Types of Kingship. a. Generalship over matters related to war eg Sparta. Based on family or elective. b. Barbarian kingships similar to tyrannies based on law and heredity (therefore stable). Bodyguard of citizens and not mercenaries like in tyranny. c. Elective tyranny or dictator not based on law but is based on heredity. N.B. These three are like the rule of a master and therefore tyrannical; and also like kingship bec. they are elective over willing persons. d. Heroic kingship are over willing persons, heredity and in accordance with law. He ruled over war, religious occurrences, and judging. e. Aristotle sets a fifth kind apart ie kingship. He rules over all matters as in a household. 2. Two Types of Kingship. a. Permanent generalship or kingship. The general only rules over matters relating to was but the universal king rules over all matters. b. Generalship can be dismissed bec. it's not a polity but rather an investigation of laws. LOGOS 1 History makes kingship the beginning. 3. Is it Better to be Ruled by the Best Man or the Best Laws? a. Laws are universal and not particular and don't apply to every situation. b. The best regime isn't based on laws like medicine is not based on laws. Judgments must be made. This is analogy with the arts. c. Laws aren't bound by passion as a man is, but this does help him deliberate. d. The good multitude (aristocrats) is a better choice than the one person, but they encounter factions. e. Kingships developed bec. it was difficult to find a good multitude. f. When more virtuous men arose, a polity was established for common things. When these became worse, and went after personal gain, it led to an oligarchy. Then came tyrannies and democracies. When things came into the hands of a few, it made the multitudes stronger. This led to large cities and more democracies. g. Two problems arise: Will his offspring rule even if they are average? And how should he use force to safeguard the laws? LOGOS 2 4. Should the King Act According to his Own Will or According to the Laws? Arguments against kingship. a. If he acts acc. to his own will in all matters, he occupies a universal kingship. b. Equality dictates that no one is superior and that people should rule in turn. --In equality which is by law, laws cannot solve all problems, so someone must judge. c. The arts example for laws ruling is false; judgment is needed. Question: Does the Law possess impartiality? Question: The arrangement of ruling and ruled is already law. Question: Why do we eliminate the generalship bec. it is based on law? Question: Logos 2 What does it mean that the one who asks for law to rule asks for intellect and god to rule? Why is law intellect without appetite? Question: Why is friendship offered as the end of Logos 2? LOGOS 3 -- Nature provides for Kingship. 5. Nature provides the naturally superior person. a. It is either one person or a family. b. One is obedient to the persuasion of the supremely virtuous person. N.B. The education and habits that make a man excellent are essentially those that make him a political or kingly ruler. BOOK IV Types of Regimes--Preservation and Destruction Parallelism Between Arts (Gymnastics), Science and Politics: 1. Four concerns of arts and gymnastics. a. What is suitable exercise for the individual body or "client." b. What is best in general. c. What exercise is best for the most. d. Partial training for conditioning or whatever is asked for. N.B. What is best is secondary. 2. Five concerns of science. a. What is best simply. b. What is best for specific people or situations. c. What a people want or start from a hypothesis. That is, how a regime begins and may be preserved not being the best regime. d. What is best for the most. e. Help existing polities. N.B. The best is primary or first. 3. Political Concerns. OUTLINE OF BOOK IV AND V a. Know the varieties of regimes. b. Best for the most. c. The best for specific people. d. How to proceed in specific circumstances. e. What preserves and what is destructive of polity. N.B. Political term are more like terms in art than science. N.B. There is no discussion of the best simply. Question: What's the difference between science and art? N.B. In art you start with specific and concrete. In science you start with the best. In politics you start with varieties. Contrast Plato's Description of Regimes With Aristotle's: 1. Plato puts the best regime as a seventh separate regime outside the other 6 regimes whereas Aristotle puts the best regime in the top three. 2. Plato uses the same name for good and bad regimes whereas Aristotle calls them good and deviant. Socrates is a metaphysician who later on came down to Earth from his balloon. Varieties of Regimes Based on the Parts of the City: 1. Households. a. Wealthy. b. Poor. c. Middling. 2. Of the wealthy. a. Horse breeding bec. horses were used in wars. b. Family. c. Virtue. 4. Of the demos or multitude. a. Agriculture related. b. Commercial. c. Mechanics. Debate Over Types of Regimes: 1. Some say that there are only oligarchy and democracy and all others are winds and deviations from these. 2. Aristotle talks of good regimes and deviations with the varieties of regimes based on the conflation of parts. Democracy: 1. It is a democracy when the free have authority and who often are poor and many ie the majority. Oligarchy: 1. It is an oligarchy when the wealthy have authority and often are the better born and few. Parts of the City--Second List: 1. Farmers who are concerned with sustenance. 2. Mechanics or vulgar element concerned with the arts some for sustenance and some for luxury. 3. Merchants who buy and sell and trade and commerce. 4. Laboring element. 5. Warrior element to protect the city from attack. A city that is enslaved is not self-sufficient. 6. Adjudicators and deliberators. 7. Well off or those who perform services thru property. 8. Magistrates 9. Judges or those who deliberate. Parts of the City--Socrates' List in the Republic: 1 Weaver, farmer, shoemaker and builder. Then he adds smiths, shepherds and merchants to enable self-sufficiency. Only later does he add warriors for self- preservation. 2. Socrates makes the mistake that the city is constituted for the sake of the necessities and not for living well. Socrates is lower minded as a result. Also, he gives good and bad regimes the same name and that the best regime is different from the existing regimes. Aristotle says that the 3 beneficent regimes are best. Parts of the Demos or Multitude: Third list (Aristotle's 2nd) 1. Farmers. 2. Artisans or mechanics or vulgar element. 3. Merchants 4. Those who sail a. Military, business, ferrying and fishing. (4) 5. Menial element ie w/o property. 6. The Free element. Parts of the Notables: 1. Wealth 2. Good birth 3. Virtue 4. Education N.B. Aristotle lists these parts to demonstrate that there are different kinds of oligarchies and democracies. First Democracy: 1. Based on equality in that the rich and poor rule equally. a. Freedom and equality co-exist in a democracy. Question: How does freedom fit into the first democracy? Second Democracy: 1. Offices are filled on the basis of assessments which are low. Third Democracy: 1. Citizens of unquestioned descent share in the ruling office, but law rules. Question: What is the significance of law ruling? Fourth Democracy: 1. Citizens share in the ruling offices, but law rules. Fifth Democracy: Tyrannical 1. The multitude has authority and not the law. a. Decrees have more value than laws and this comes from a popular leader. b. This is a democracy having a "monarch" because many combine into one and end up with a rule like the master. c. Tyrannical: Decrees of one equal the edicts of the other; flatterers are held in honor by tyrannies and popular leaders by this type of democracy. d. The people have authority in all matters and they have authority over the people's opinions bec. he persuades them. e. It is not really a polity bec. the laws and therefore the constitution is so easily overthrown. f. Decrees cannot be general and are therefore not authoritative. g. The laws should rule in all matters and the regime should judge in particular cases. h. The vulgar element and wage earners predominate. Why Have Free Laborers Instead of Slaves: 1. With free laborers, you don't concern yourself with his life. He's only with you 8 hours. 2. The problem with free labor is that they become a powerful demos which leads to the last democracy because the multitude is preeminent. Kinds of Oligarchy: 1. Offices are filled based on an assessment that poor cannot pay. 2. Offices are filled on the basis of large assessments. a. If vacancies are filled from all of the "few" then it is more aristocratic. It from a few of the "few", then it is oligarchic. 3. Father succeeds sons 4. Father succeeds sons and the law doesn't rule but the officials do. a. The is an oligarchic tyranny or dynastic oligarchy. What Happens to the Middling Element: 1. It is good but doesn't claim to be based on virtue. 2. It is limited not bec. of virtue but by being between the poor and the rich who act as opposing forces. 3. They can't get what they want bec. of the money that the oligarchs have and the numbers of the poor. The Way People Participate in a Polity: Democracy 1. Necessity brings about the forms. a. Farmers have enough to live on as long as they work. b. They gain a moderate amount of property, and have no leisure. c. Because they are unable to be at leisure, they put laws in charge and only participate in the most necessary assemblies. 2. The next distinction is that those of unquestioned descent can participate but really only those at leisure. a. Laws still rule bec. there is no Revenue. 3. Free persons share in the ruling but bec. there is not Revenue, laws still rule. 4. The cities become much larger; abundant revenues are available and the multitude rule bec. the poor can be paid enabling them to be at leisure. a. The poor are more at leisure than the rich bec. the rich have to look after their estates. The rich don't participate in ruling therefore the poor are authoritative and the laws aren't. The Ways People Participate in Polity: Oligarchy 1. FIRST: Large no. persons own property, but in lesser amts. and not overly much. a. Sharing in the regime is open those who can pay the assessments. b. Bec. a multitude share in the regime, laws rule. c. They don't have so much that they can ignore their property nor so little that they must be sustained by the city, they claim that they deserve to have the law rule. 2. SECOND: When property is greater and, they are more influential they merit aggrandizement and they elect those they want to serve. a. They are not yet strong enough to rule without law. 3. THIRD: If they reduce the "few" by means of even greater properties, then all of the offices are in their hands and they are succeeded by their son. 4. FOURTH: Tightened excessively in terms of property and friendship, it comes close to a monarchy and human beings rule and not the laws. This is comparable to the last democracy. List of Regimes by Common Opinion: 1. Monarchy, oligarchy, democracy, and aristocracy. 2. Fifth is polity. a. Plato ignores it bec. it doesn't often exist. Kinds of Aristocracy: 1. FIRST: When the regime is based on virtue only ie in the best regime. 2. SECOND: When the regime is based on wealth and virtue, and the demos like Carthage. 3. THIRD: When the regime is based on virtue and the demos. 4. FOURTH: Those that incline more toward oligarchy. Polity: 1. The regime in which virtue is not acclaimed but rather is based on wealth and freedom which are the defining principles of oligarchy and democracy. Polity is said to be a mixture of these two types of regimes. a. It is the best practical regime for most but also the most rare. b. The middling is rare because it is difficult to establish the necessary conditions for middle class bec. you have to have more acquisition. This compromises the natural end of the polis which is that nature is limited. c. Inclines to oligarchy; falls short of the best regime simply; and it is worse than Sparta and Carthage. d. If regime tends toward democracy, it is a polity. If regime tends toward oligarchy, it is an aristocracy. e. The three less good forms of aristocracy unite all of the claims to rule ie freedom, wealth and virtue. (Being well born accompanies the latter two since it is a combination of wealth & virtue. Establishing Polity: 1. Mix the ruling principles. a. Judging: fine the well off for not participating and give no pay to the poor = oligarchic. b. Judging: pay for the poor and do not fine the well off = democracy. c. Judging: fine the well off and pay the poor = polity. d. The assembly and who belongs: a small assessment for democracy, a large for oligarchy, and a mean to establish a polity. e. Elections or the use of lots: It is oligarchic to elect on the basis of an assessment and elected. It is democratic to elect w/o an assessment and by lot. Polity (and aristocracy) take an element from each ie electing by elections but not having an assessment. f. It should be able to be spoken of as either an oligarchy or a democracy depending on how you look at it. g. Sparta: educates wealthy and poor together; common messes; similar dress; they elect the greater offices but all the offices are elected; "the few" have power of life and death. h. In a polity the citizens don't want another regime and not just bec. the majority wishes it. Kinds of Tyranny: 1. Plenipotentiary monarchs of the barbarians who have the rule of law over willing persons but also like a master who rules acc. to his own will. 2. Dictators of the Greeks who rule by law over willing persons but also have the nature of a master ruling by his own will. 3. Absolute tyranny that rules unchallenged over persons who are similar or better and with a view to his own advantage and not the ruled ie unwilling people. The "Mean" in the Ethics vs. Politics. 1. In the Ethics it is excellence between the extremes. 2 In the Politics it the achievable and the mean between oligarchy and democracy. Why the Middling is the Best Practical Regime: 1. It is readiest to obey reason. The naturally superior are arrogant and the poor are petty and lead to acts of injustice. It alone is without factional conflict. 2. The middling don't push to rule or avoid ruling. The superior don't know how to be ruled and the poor don't want to rule. Also the superior rule as a master and the poor as slaves. Then you have a city of slaves and master 3. The city wishes to be free and equal persons which is best seen in the middling elements making it the best practical regime. 4. They don't crave like the poor and don't either plot nor are they plotted against. 5. The middling sort is the best because it is without factions. The middling element is biggest in large cities and vis a vis. 6. Democracies are more stable than oligarchies because the middling plays a greater role. 7. It seldom arises bec. either the wealthy or the poor overstep their bounds and establishes a regime for its own benefit. The Advantageous Regime: 1. Every city has quality and quantity. a. Quality is freedom, wealth, education, and good birth. b. Quantity is the preeminence of the multitude. 2. A quantity of farmers is the first democracy; a quantity of the vulgar is the last democracy. 3. A quantity of notables is an oligarchy that accords with nature. 4. The legislator enacts democratic laws in an oligarchy and oligarchic laws in a democracy bec. of the value of the middling element. Devices to Maintain Rule: 1. Oligarchy and Democracy: a. They are fined for not attending assemblies or assessed a larger fine. b. Offices should be open to the poor and not those who decline the office for financial reasons. c. Courts: the well off should be fined if they don't attend and impunity for the poor. d. Armament: the well off are fined if they don't arm and the poor aren't. e. Exercise: the well off are fined if they don't exercise and vis a vis. Distribution of Offices: 1. Deliberative 2. Magistrates 3. Judicial N.B. Remember that citizenship is deliberating and judging. Separation of Powers: 1. Polybius separated into 3 powers without a principle like Montesquieu had. That was that there will be no individual rights without it. 2. The powers of the majority must be separated or there is a temptation to tyrannize. 3. J. S. Mill and Tocqueville originated that it was a danger to liberty of thought which led to freedom of speech. 4. Previously it was distribution of offices and now it is separation of powers. a. Now there are only illegitimate and legitimate gov'ts. Either they are free or they aren't. b. The only deliberation we have now is election to elect a representative body to deliberate but actually it is a lawmaking body ie exercising power. The president doesn't deliberate, he exercises power. Selection of Officials: 1. Who selects the officials? 2. From whom are they selected? 3. In what manner? BOOK V: On Revolutions Revolution According to Plato in the Republic: 1. Plato brings together two things: a. Change in regimes. b. Rank of regimes. 2. Revolution is the attempt to make change in regimes cyclical. 3. Change follows rank and is therefore a degeneration. 4. Speaks mythically: a. There is change from highest to lowest bec. best is oldest. b. The worst is the youngest. c. Revolution is always a fall and every society says this. d. Kingship to aristocracy to oligarchy to democracy to mob rule to tyranny and back to kingship. Aristotle's Critique of the Socratic Revolution: 1. Regimes turn frequently into their opposites or it may go the opposite. 2. Confronts Plato with reality eg Carthage and Sparta and his singularity of reasons for revolutions. Equality: 1. Factional conflicts arising from different views of equality lead to revolution. a. Free persons say that they are equal simply because they are equal in some way; oligarchies arise bec. those who are unequal or superior in one respect think that they are superior in every respect. And when a group does not share in the regime on the basis of its equality then factional conflicts arise. 2. Democracy is more stable and freer from factional conflict. Oligarchies have conflicts against the people and each other whereas democracies have them only against the oligarchy. Also, polity is closer to democracy than to oligarchy and it the most stable of regimes bec. it is well-blended. Factional Conflict: 1. Three causes of revolt: a. State of mind ie the lesser engage in factional conflict to be equal but the greater engage in factional conflict to be greater. b. Profit and honor ie ends. c. Occasions (9 of them). The occasion is a small thing but the argument isn't small. i. arrogance in aggrandizements and honors or dishonors (justifiable and unjustifiable in merit) ii. fear of punishments iii. preeminence ie too great leading to ostracism or lopping off their ears. iv. contempt ie oligarchs don't like disorder and anarchy and democrats don't like not sharing in rule. v. disproportionate growth of one of the parts either notables, poor, etc. vi. electioneering ie a problem that isn't factional in nature. It led to election by lot. vii. underestimation is allowing persons who are not friends of the regime to hold an office. viii. neglect of small things like letting a small assessment become none at all. ix. dissimilarity of peoples (ie racism) N.B. The greatest faction conflict is between virtue and vice and second is wealth and poverty Examples of "small things." 1. Homosexual love affair; two brothers quarrelling over an inheritance; blood feud; inheritances;all involving those in authority. N.B. Change takes place through force and deceit and persuasion. And they can be maintained through force or persuasion. Change in a Democracy: 1. Revolutions occur bec. of the wanton behavior of the popular leaders or demagogues. a. The popular leaders alienate the notables and they revolt. 2. In ancient times when the popular leader was also a general, the revolution was to a tyranny. 3. Now that popular leaders are skilled in rhetoric they are less able to become tyrants especially not being generals. Change in an Oligarchy: 1. They treat the multitude unjustly. 2. Internal conflict and the multitude must step in. 3. Wanton living ie there is demagoguery within the oligarchy or a demagogue who betrays the oligarchy by calling in the multitude. 4. An oligarchy w/i an oligarchy. 5. A harmonious oligarchy is stable bec. it is not marked by internal struggles. 6. In peace and war, sometimes an oligarchy hires mercenaries and one of them becomes a tyrant or out of fear the "few" give some of the rule to the demos. 7. Small things. 8. Accidents in economic situations 9. There is too much rule of the master. Change in Aristocracies: 1. Unequal share in honors. 2. It seems like an oligarchy. 3. The "few" are proud spirited. 4. If they are dishonored, they want change. 5. The well-born become poor. 6. The aristocrats give up power to poor who become middling. 7. The great who can be greater. 8. Deviate from justice which is the most important bec. it no longer is beneficent rule. 9. Revolt happens in small steps. Preservation of Regimes: Polities and Aristocracies 1. The greatest need in preservation is to promote fears ie to make the far away danger near. 2. Small things ie transgresses of the laws. 3. Don't trust in the devices. 4. Keep the parts balanced. 5. A political man sees problems coming down the road and so he defuses the factions of the notables. 6. Change in the assessments. 7. Oversee the private lives of the leaders. 8. Don't all leaders to profit from the offices. 9. Give honors to the non-ruling group. Qualities for Those Holding Offices: 1. Affection for the established regime. 2. Capacity for the position. 3. Virtue and justice relative to the regime. Preserving Deviant Regimes: 1. Don't carry the constitution to an extreme but make an oligarchy more like a democracy and vis a vis. a. Don't forget the middling; it brings in moderateness. 2. Education relative to the regime. Make a democracy more oligarchic and an oligarchy more democratic. Revolution and Preservation of Kingship and Tyranny: 1. Kings aim to the noble Tyrants aim to the pleasant -Supported by Supported by mercenaries or civilian guards. --Wealth as its end and power. -Rule base on merit: Ill-treatment of demos. -virtue, family virtue, War on the notables. -benefactions and capacity. -Guardian against injust. 2. Revolution occur because of: a. Injustice especially insolence and unjust treatment of property. b. Fear c. Contempt for a) effeminacy b) way of life c) trusting character, and d) incapacity. d. Fame and ambition for reputation. e. Tyranny is destroyed from the outside bec. likes compete with likes. and because all regimes are opposed to it. N.B. Two Views on the Destruction of Constitutions Outside Your Own 1. If state is clearly wrong acc. to moral and natural laws, then a war of civilization has a right to intervene ie a tyranny ought to be destroyed. 2. The modern view is based on 16th century thinker from Spain who wanted limit Conquistadores in Latin Amer. They did so by doctrine of sovereignty. f. Tyrannies can be destroyed from within by factions. g. Kingship arose to assist the notables whereas tyrant arise out of demos against the notables so as not to be done injustice. h. Tyrants arise by slandering the notables and gain the trust of the people. Preservation of Tyrannies: Mode 1 1. Lopping off the notables. 2. Eliminating high thoughts. 3. No leisured discussion. 4. Distrust with spies. 5. Keep people poor by war and public works. Preservation of Tyrannies: Mode 2 1. Make it appear more kingly. a. Make common funds for public good. b. Taxes used for public good. c. Appear dignified via military virtue. d. Don't take the young men and women. e. Adorn the city as a steward. f. Take care of the gods. g. Don't be silly. h. Make no single person great. i. Refrain from arrogance. j. Treat rich and poor justly and attach to preeminent. k. Appear as a mgr. ie half decent. BOOK VI: How to Establish a Democracy, Oligarchy, and Aristocracy Question: What the difference between the authoritative and deliberative elements of the regime? Why are Democracies Different? 1. Because parts of the city are different. a. Combining the different parts. 2. Different possible combinations of the institutions of the city. General Comments on Establishing Regimes: 1. Monarchies cannot be established. a. It emerged in ancient times. b. Large cities lead to equality and not to kingship and its hierarchy. c. Tyrannies should never be established. 2. Polities are less desireable bec of the problem of acquisition, innovation and technological development. Equality and Freedom: 1. The presupposition (or hypothesis) of a democracy is liberty. a. The first type of liberty (or defining principle) is ruling and being ruled in turn ie they have equal right to rule. This is an equality based on number and not on merit, and, therefore, the multitude must have authority. b. The second type of liberty (or 2nd defining principle) is doing as one wants ie life, property and the honor of women. This is the claim to merit not being ruled by anyone. If this doesn't work then to rule and be ruled in turn. This is freedom based on equality. (1308b35) 2. Which is first, liberty or equality. a. Neither one is first simply. b. If you start with living the way you want or liberty, then you have rule of the poor bec. this is the manner in which they live. The rule of the poor rule in turns which is equality. c. If you start with equality, it leads to rule by the larger numbers. This is the rule of the poor who want to live as they want ie liberty. Popular Institutions: 1. All citizens can be elected to all the offices. 2. Ruling in turn. 3. Offices either chosen by lot or w/o experience. 4. Offices not based on assessment or the smallest assessment. 5. Not holding offices twice. 6. Offices of short duration. 7. Greatest matters judged by or chosen from all. 8. The assembly have authority over the greatest matters. 9. Pay for those in the assembly. 10. Lack of birth, poverty, and vulgarity. 11. No offices for life. Democracy or Rule of the People: 1. All having an equal share of rule based on number. In this way equality and freedom are both present in the regime. a. Equality acc. to Book 5 Chap 1 is numerical and acc. to merit; but here it is numerical and without virtue. How Should the Different Parts of the City Be Made Equal?: 1. Making the total property of the poor and the well off equal through assessments. 2. Or take an equal number from the rich and poor if one is 500 and the other is 1000. 3. Justice is whatever is resolved by the majority. (1318a30) 4. There are 10 rich and 20 poor. a. 6 rich and 5 poor against 15 poor and 4 rich. b. 6x2=12+5 against 15+4x2=23 c. Mathematical equation for equality. 5. Those who are inferior think of equality but those who dominate take no thought of it. Though it is difficult to find out what is just and equal, it is harder to persuade the well-born of such things. The Four Types of Democracy: 1. The best is based on farming and is the oldest. Worst is largest. a. They have to work therefore they don't have leisure. b. They're always in need of necessities. c. Acquisition ie a [regime] based on requirements of many. d. They put up with tyrannies and oligarchies bec. they give them goods and so they tolerate taking away their liberties. e. The people do not select and only a few deliberate therefore this the gov't of consent at Mantinea. f. Electing by assessments, which means responsible and serious, or by ability, leads to better gov't. Definition: The power to do what one wishes does not defend itself against the baser elements. Cf. difference between animals and anthropos. g. The middle class is under the most constraint by means of laws, the sacred and virtue. 1319b27 Q: What democracy is referred to here? 1. All elect, audit and adjudicate. 2. Elected on basis of assessments and better are elected on the basis of larger assessments. 3. Not on the basis of assessments but capable persons. This means that the offices will always be in good hands. The Second Best Democracy: 1. Herdsmen who are war-like ref. to the Afghans. 2. The rest are based on increasing deviations ie a worsening multitude and without virtue. 3. Craftsmen and Merchants who hang around the city ie the excitable multitude is in the city but don't have an assemble without the farmers. Establishing the Last Democracy: 1. Break up old associations by admitting those with questionable ancestry, ie increase the multitude. Too many leads to disorder. 2. Encourage license among the slaves. 3. Give greater freedom to women and children which leads to apathy and love of pleasant things. This leads to disorder and disorder is more pleasant that moderation. Instituting Stability in a Democracy: 1. The goal is not extreme democracy or oligarchy bec this means that they are deviant. Rather the goal is stability. a. Misuse of the courts ie confiscations so as to win the favor of the people. Defend property by making confiscations sacred. b. Frivolous public suits should be minimized. The citizens should either feel benevolent to the regime or at least not like enemies. c. There is a problem with the assembly bec. 1) Paying the poor in a big city is burdensome so they should be few and short in duration. 2) With the revenues, doles should be discouraged. They never end ie the proverbial "punctured jar." d. Be concerned with the lasting prosperity of the poor. Lasting prosperity is the ultimate goal of the last democracy. NOTE: The long term prosperity of the poor. Establishment of Oligarchies: 1. The first kind involves enough of an assessment to bring in the multitude for a majority over the whole. Bec. it brings in the common people is similar to a polity. A polity is always popular rule and an oligarchy is always concerned with wealth. a. Lesser assessments share in the necessary offices whereas the greater assessments share in the deliberative offices. 2. The second increases the assessment requirement. 3. The last oligarchy abandon proportionate justice for preservation ie large cities. A large city is more moderate making philosophy more possible. a. The large city makes it safer against attack. Democracies are preserved by their large populations and oligarchies by being well arranged. b. The worse the regime, the greater the defense. It takes a great effort to keep the regime safe. A small error can destroy it. The preservation of the Oligarchy: 1. There is always the tendency of factional conflict based on one part being stronger. The 1st recipe to preserve the oligarchy is as follows: a. There are 4 parts to the multitude. The farming, the vulgar, the merchant and laboring. b. There are 4 parts of the city useful for war. The cavalry, the heavily armed, the light armed, and the seaman. c. Cavalry is oligarchic as are the hoplites or heavily armed bec. the well off can afford the arms. The light armed infantry and seamen are democratic. d. The oligarchs get the worst of this split. e. The oligarchs should get a general to join a lightly armed force to go along with the other two. The lightly armed force can be made of the sons of the well off who are trained from their youth. f. Give a share of the rule to the poor who abstain from vulgar tasks for awhile. g. Attach public services to the authoritative offices s. t. the poor are glad for the rich to have those offices bec. they spend their own money in their execution. h. Have the rich offer great sacrifices and things in common. The poor want the regime to continue and the rich have monuments to show for it all. BUT The oligarches don't do this but seek honor and spoils so that they are similar to a small democracy. Locke versus Aristotle: 1. Locke saw property as the end of the political partnership a. The easiest way to virtue is to protect property. b. The rational are industrious and well off whereas the irrational aren't. c. Excellence is produced by a variety of properties which leads to a variety of talents which produces excellences. This replaces the ancients view of virtue as a direct end. It is difficult to develop virtue directly. The ancients versus the moderns: 1. Public versus the private is the arena of difference. The parallel between the two list in Book 6 ch. 8. 1. The necessary offices in Book 6 ch. 8. List #1 a. Superintendence of the market which is the readiest way to selfsufficiency. b. Town management ie property in the town c. Field management or foresters. d. Treasurers over the common funds. e. Recorders of judgments. f. Criminal courts. g. Military matters. All offices below require experience and trust. h. Auditors. i. The Council j. The priests. k. Common sacrifices. 2. The necessary offices in Book 6 Ch. 8. List #2. a. Divine matters; military matters; revenues; expenditures; the market; the town; harbors; and the country; then the courts; registration of agreements; actions against offenders; guarding prisoners; receiving accounts; scrutinizing and auditing officials; and the council 3. These are the lists of the minimum necessary offices. a. The list in 1321b11 begins with the markets and list in 1322b30 begins with religion. That is, one is the most pressing and the other is the most important. Shows that the ancient is not secular. Differences in two other lists: Book 6 ch. 8 and Book 4 ch. 14. Book 6 ch. 4 duties of magistrates in Bk 4 1. a.Public worship a. Political Military, Revenue and Expendatures. b. Market, city center, b. Economic distribution and harbors. c. Law courts, contracts, c. Subordinate or menial and penalties d. Deliberation d. Deliberative and public affairs ACTUAL PRACTICE FUNCTIONS SIMPLY or categories The two lists in Book 6 chap. 8 are the beginning of natural right. 1. What is by nature a right? a. Religion and markets are included. b. The foundations of good society begin with these two. The Socratic way of life: 1. He discovered authority in something else besides the city and consensus. a. The higher thing is the soul and things like politics. b. Anti-socratic view is that the lower things are first. Is the philosopher to engage in politics? 1. The question is whether or not philosophy is private or public. a. If it's public, it must help secure the city ie it's instrumental. b. It has been replaced by the scientist who cares for the needs of the city. c. Philosophy doesn't appear in Politics except in the priest or in divine matters. BOOK VII: Constructing the best regime that leads to the most choiceworthy life. 1. The Most Choiceworthy Life: a. To be blessed one should have the right combination of good things. External good things ie acquisition of things. Good things of the body. Good things of the soul b. People agree on the good things people should have but they don't agree on how much of each or which is most important or preeminent. c. External Good Things. --External good things cannot acquire and safeguard virtue but the virtues can acquire and safeguard external things. --Living happily is found in those who have an excess of the adornments of character and mind and are moderate in respect to the external acquisition of good things. Refers to unlimited acquisition. --External good things are naturally limited but those of the soul are not. --The external good things and the good things of the body exist for the sake of the soul, and it is the soul that makes the other good things naturally choiceworthy. Therefore, get the soul working well, bec. of this hierarchy of goods. --The external good things come through chance and fortune but are not acc. to virtue. N.B. Aristotle and Plato start their accounts with the soul and the mind. The Moderns start their accounts with the inanimate. d. Happiness is moderation of the external things and adornments of the character and the mind. --For example, a god is happy and blest but not through possessions ie external things, but by certain things in himself. --Therefore good fortune is different from happiness especially since justice and soundness can't come through good fortune. 2. The choiceworthy life and city. a. The best city is happy and acts nobly. b. There are no noble deeds apart from virtue and prudence. c. The courage, justice and prudence of the city has the same form and power as the courage, justice and prudence of the individual. d. Therefore, the best way of life for the city and for the individual is the life of virtue and this virtue must be equipped. e. Furthermore, if people ascribe living well to wealth as the most choiceworthy way of life for the individual then it also for the city. And happiness for the city is the same as for the individual. --Happiness is in accordance with the regime just like education is conducted for the regime. What is the Best Regime? 1. It is the arrangement in which anyone might act in the best manner and live blessedly. The Practical Political Life versus theoretical Political Life 1. Theoretical life or contemplative life is divorced from external good things. 2. Both of these are chosen by those who are serious about virtue as an end. 3. The practical political man leads to the imperialistic polis; the philosophical political man lead to the self-sufficient polis. 4. The Practical, political life taken seriously is against the philosophic life and leads to imperialism. a. Cities begin by voluntarily associating with one another. Hegemony is the leadership expressed over that voluntary association. b. One city won't exchange rule with another. c. Therefore the others want to revolt which leads to more hegemony. d. This hegemony turns into imperialistic rule of master over slaves because some feel they have a right to rule over their neighbors. e. Friendliness and exchange of rule is possible within a city but not between cities. f. Sparta and Crete educate and make laws for war; among the Scythians, Persians, Thracians and Celts. If Political rule is the Highest 1. It leads to imperialism; praising the practical political life is praising imperialism. 2. Therefore, it can't be best life but it does lead to happiness. 3. Politics is not done for its own sake but is according to _________, therefore it is not according to leisure. Machiavelli's View of the City versus Aristotle's Polis: 1. Aristotle indicates that there is no polis which has excellence or virtue as its end. a. Therefore there is no direction and the end is superiority. 2. Machiavelli says to ignore it as a result. a. Therefore you remove the good society according to Machiavelli. b. Modern society is the now a philosophy of history. ----That is, good regimes are coming. 3. Aristotle said that the end of the polis is virtue even if only in speech. a. Speech reveals order of the soul therefore it is the most powerful. b. Ordinary speech is about virtue. 4. Machiavelli says the virtue isn't the end of the polis but the means. a. A city can't be preserved without virtues eg courage, temperance etc. but they are necessary to help preserve the city which is the end. b. The city is not subject to the virtues; the citizens need virtues because the ty makes use of them for self-preservation. --So the prince speaks one way ie religion and piety, but he himself is free such things. 5. Aristotle's view is that if virtues rule the citizen, then they should rule the poleis. a. Moral virtue must transcend the city acc. to Aristotle but not Machiavelli. 6. If the city is judged by moral virtue, the philosopher and the politician conjoin. 7. Aristotle says that the polis derives dignity from life of the mind, but it itself isn't directed to the life of the mind. a. The mind cannot be institutionalized. The Contemplative Life versus The Practical Life: 1. In the practical political life, it's correct that happiness is action. 2. Sovereign rule is not the best action. a. The best is not related to others. b. The best is for your own sake. 3. Therefore true action takes place in the Contemplative Life. The Contemplative Life versus the Practical Life: (first argument) 1. Some say that the way of life of a free person is better than that of a political ruler. a. This is to say that the way of life of the free person is better than that of mastery, but every kind of rule is not mastery. b. To praise inactivity of the contemplative life over the activity of the practical political life is wrong. 2. Others say that the political life is better because it is impossible for those who act in nothing to act well, and that acting well and happiness are the same thing. a. Happiness is sort of action, and the actions of the just and moderate person lead to noble things. 3. Some then say that if the actions of the just political life lead to many noble things, then to rule over the most number of people is best bec. one has authority over the greatest number and the noblest actions. a. Based on this, one should deprive those around him of rule. b. One can do great things by action, but this doesn't balance taking from your neighbor. c. Nature corrupted isn't superior any more therefore there is no claim to rule. 4. The practical political life and theoretical life conjoin only if the virtuous man is found. 5. In summary, it's wrong to think of theoretical life as doing nothing. Happiness is an action. This points to the self-sufficiency of thoughts, and removes the distinction between the practical and theoretical. That is, the practical life is actions and so is the theoretical life. Is the Practical Life the Best and is it the Same for the City and the Individual? 1. Just and moderate persons have an end for many noble things. 2. Therefore, having authority all persons is best. a. Then one authority over the most persons and noblest actions. 3. But this is a deviation from virtue because one must deprive those around him of rule. 4. This makes the most choiceworthy available to those who plunder and use force. 5. Among similar persons this is unjust, but with a superior person one should obey him. 6. In this case the best way of life for the city is the active one. 7. But the active life is not for others necessarily but is better for one's self. a. The master craftsman of thoughts is engaged in a kind of action. b. The city can be by itself and so can the individual, and all their actions are for themselves. Therefore, the best way of life is the same for cities and individuals. Definition: Power is acting to achieve what you want. The political equipment for the Polis: 1. The number of citizens. a. The greatness of a city is not the number of inhabitants but their quality. The Difference Between a Nation and a Polis: 1. Numbers are big. 2. It's not easy to have a regime or order. 3. Citizen must know each other to give offices on the basis of merit. 4. A polis must not be too big or too small like a ship that is a foot long or too big it loses it nature. It's either not self-sufficient or it's not capable of having a regime. 5. The size of the polis should be for self-sufficiency and towards a life that is readily surveyable. The Political Equipment of the Polis: 1. The size of the territory is based on self-sufficiency ie with leisure and moderation. a. Readily surveyable and easily defended. The Polis and the Sea: 1. The harmful part of the sea is the rise of commerce and merchant but the positive side is defense. a. Chapter 6 is an interesting perspective on the city of Corinth. Character of the Political Multitude: 1. Cold nations like Europe are spirited but lack thought and art. a. They are freer but lack the ability to rule their neighbors. 2. In Asia they are endowed with thought and art, but are lacking in spiritedness, therefore they ruled and even enslaved. 3. The Greeks share in both spiritedness and thought and art and are in middle locale. This is claim to universality of rule by the Greeks. 4. Barbarians have either too much spirit, but spirit and intelligence are balanced in the polis. 5. Universality of rule is contrary to the polis bec. it's more like a nation. The Moderns and Regimes: 1. The Moderns dismiss the importance of regimes ie their particularity. a. A democracy is good for all, but Aristotle speaks of Athens as a democracy. The Polis and Possessions: 1. Cities need possessions but possessions are no part of the city bec. the city is a partnership for the best life that is possible. 2. HAPPINESS is the personification of virtue and a certain complete practice of it. a. Happiness cannot be apart from virtue. 3. Parts of the city on the basis of the tasks that need to be accomplished. a. Food...Art...Arms (for the disobedient and outsiders)...Funds for needs and defense)...and superintendence connected with the divine. This is fifth in order and first in importance...6th and most necessary--judging what is advantageous. Marsilius of Padua: 1. Says that priest are teachers. 2. The cosmos and its order is taught. a. Astrology--Stars are given stories to get men to obey laws. 3, Philosophy is beyond the polis, but priests are the political reflection of the philosopher. 4. The polis must have religion. E.g. put the temple outside the city and make the people walk there to keep fit. Who Should Participate in the Best Regime?: 1. The best regime is in accordance with happiness; Happiness is in accordance with virtue. a. The vulgar are defective in virtue. b. Farmers are not able to be in best regime because leisure is needed to from virtue and for political activities. c. The political parts of the city. --Younger should be in the military bec. of their power. --The older should do the deliberating bec. of their prudence. --Those who are old and worn out should render service to the gods. 2. The new demos. a. The multitude is no longer the demos but the priests and rulers (consisting the armed element(?) and the judges). The necessary part of the polis is separated forever. The Problem of the Demos in the Best Regime: 1. Aristotle solves the problem of the demos by getting rid of them. a. This leads to conventional slavery of the farmer element. 2. The best polis to Aristotle is based on conventional slavery. 3. Aristotle chooses the injustice of conventional slavery over the unnaturalness of acquisition. a. The problem of the demos is the problem of getting more. This subordinate the best to the needs of the many. The needs of the demos in acquisition are primary. This isn't just either. 4. A demos like this leads to kingship. 5. To Aristotle, the best regime is between an aristocracy and kingship but closer to kingship. 6. In Plato's LAWS the 2nd best regime has a demos. If the demos becomes too great send them out in colonies. Four Things That are Important to the City: 1. Health 2. Political things. 3. Military things. 4. Beauty and decor of the city. a. Technological innovation. *Fortifications *Military Preparations. *Aristotle wants walls unlike Plato and Machiavelli. That is, he wants new military weaponry. b. The city is vulnerable to technological innovations. *The wicked city imposes technological innovations. *Control citizens and not the cities bec. science is advocated. *The visible universe and mankind are eternal therefore nature is beneficent. *What places limits on technology is the beneficence of nature ie man cannot destroy himself. c. Technological innovation doesn't take place until the philosophers take it up. *Machiavelli wants the philosophers to turn to technological development therefore he is the founder of the New Age. If they can be dissuaded, then the city is protected. Designing the City: 1. The difficulty in designing the city is in doing and not knowing. 2. The political is to do that which is dependent on chance, therefore there is a gap between speech and doing. a. Speech cannot exactly describe the changeable things. 3. Changeable things aren't exact in speech but not in doing. 4. Prudence says that there is an exactness in action. E.g. an exactness in speech is impossible in moral virtue but not in action. a. "Action doesn't have the freedom of making." cf. the master craftsman. b. In moral virtue and political matters, there is only one right way. 5. The design of the city needs good moral character because otherwise there's no exactness. What is Happiness and the Need for Equipment: 1. Living nobly requires equipment. a. The better you are the less you need. b. Instruments imply that moral virtue can't be the highest good bec. it need tools. Not all men can be virtuous bec. it's by chance. 2. The seriously good man who uses bad things well is noble; the seriously good man who uses good things well is blessed. 3. Some things must be there in the founding and the legislator must provide others. Being limited by materials is a link to the crafts. 4. Men become good and excellent thru 3 things. a. Nature. b. Habit. c. Reason. Education and the City: 1. Rule is by age. a. There are few naturally superior. b. Among the similar, each must rule in turn. For equality is the same as justice for persons who are similar. c. No one chafes at ruling by age. 2. Education should be in accordance with the differences or stages in people's lives. Kinds of Education: 1. The soul has two parts. a. The education of the young is habituation. This helps the young obey out of habituation. It is needed over the passions or unreasonable part of the soul. b. The education of the old is speech and reason ie theoretical or practical. c. Citizens can't be fully virtuous until they are ruling. 2. Life is divided into two parts. a. Occupation and leisure. *Occupation is joined to the military. *Leisure is joined to the political. In the Ethics politics is unleisure; in the Politics, politics is leisure. b. War and Peace. c. War is for the sake of peace; occupation is for the sake of leisure; the necessary things are for the sake of the noble. d. It is with a view to these things that one should be educated. e. In Sparta the legislator educated for war and should have educated for peace. Practices by Which the Best Life is to be Realized: 1. Train the body first and then the soul. 2. Use courage and endurance for occupation or business or unleisure. 3. Use philosophy for leisure. 4. Justice and moderation. a. War makes it necessary for there to be just and moderate. b. People at peace tend to be arrogant therefore be just and moderate. Education of the Young: 1. 0-5 years old. a. No exposure to learning at all but play and the playing. Any stories that they hear should prepare them for their role in life. 2. 0-7 year olds should be reared at home and have little contact with slaves. 3. 2-7 year olds should be onlooker at what later will be required. 4. 7-14 years old. a. The young should be educated in light gymnastics, music and drawing. 5. 14-17 years old. a. Complete preparation for the rational part of soul. (speech and reason.) 6. 17-21 years old. a. Subject young to hard gymnastics and martial arts. 7. 0-7 is education by nature; 7 - 14 education begins; and 14 - 21 is mature education. Education by 7's. 8. (From chapter 3 of book 8) The education of the young is gymnastics and sports training. a. Gymnastics gives the body a certain quality. b. Sports training gives instruction in particular tasks. 9. (From chapter 3 of book 8) 7 - 14 years is light gymnastics and sports training and 14 - 21 years is heavy gymnastics and reasoning. a. Don't do both at the same time. The body impedes the mind and mind the body. N. B. Ban foul speech; don't let them see satire until old enough; and beat them to remove their slavish nature. BOOK VIII: Education Education of the Young 1. Educate to the regime. a. This means to educate the young in character with a view to preserving the regime and establishing it. b. The Spartans pay the most attention to their children and do so in common. c. The education of the young should be the same for all, because there is one goal. d. Education of the young should be in common because there is one goal for the city and because all belong to the city. Different Views of How Education Should Take Place: 1. Virtue and the best way of life. 2. The mind 3. The character of the soul. 4. Things useful to life, contributing to virtue or extraordinary things. What Should Be Taught: 1. The useful things should be taught. a. But not all of them. One should distinguish between the free and the unfree type of tasks. b. An unfree or vulgar task is one which makes a person's body, soul, or mind useless for virtue. ***For example, wage earning and those things that bring the body into a worse state bec. it makes the mind lacking in leisure. **Some science is OK but to do too much leads to slavish activity. Too much proficiency. In other words, the modern scientist is no gentleman. As is the professional athlete. Liberal education isn't concerned with exactness. It is illiberal and devoted to exactness and the lower things. 2. Educate with a view to the pastime that is in leisure. a. The pastime in leisure is different from leisure for military or political activities. The Reasons to Educate Among the Free: 1. One's own sake. 2. For friends which is vulgar. 3. Virtue. Subjects of Education That Are Acceptable: 1. Letters is useful as is drawing. 2. Gymnastics which contributes to courage. 3. Music's value is ambiguous. a. Most people share in music for pleasure, but it is included in education because nature wants people to be at leisure nobly. 4. Drawing which is the preparation for math via proportions, space. The Activity of Leisure: 1. Leisure is more choiceworthy than occupation bec. it is more of an end. a. Because of this one should investigate the activity of leisure. 2. It is not just for play. Play belongs in occupation. 3. Leisure involves pleasure, happiness and living blessedly. 4. Leisure involves pastime (as opposed to military and political activities) and this should be for its own sake and not for other things as in occupation. 5. Odysseus says that the end is to listen with understanding ie without performing oneself. a. The height is hearing music or poetry well. b. He performed his deeds s.t. he might listen to the singers which is the end of learning. Music as a Part of Education: 1. It is not necessary or useful like letters are. a. For example Letters are useful for business, household mgement, learning and many political activities. 2. There is some discussion as to why someone should engage in it ie for education, play or pastime? It shares in all of them. a. It can be play and relaxation like sleeping and drinking and even dancing. b. Others think that it contributes to virtue. *Just like gymnastics makes the body a certain quality so does music habituate the soul to enjoy correctly c. Others think that it contributes to pastime and prudence. 3. Don't perform it but do learn it enough to enjoy it well. 4. Music is a part of play. a. Play is for rest. b. Rest is pleasant. c. Pastime involves the noble and the pleasant and being happy comes from both of these. d. Music belongs to the pleasant therefore the young should be educated in it. Music 1. Pleasantness is accidently 2. Effects character. 3. Likenesses close to human nature are rhythms and tunes. Do We Become Different Through Music? 1. Yes. a. The tunes of Olympus make our souls enthusiastic. ***Not songs and not poetry but tunes and rhythms. ****Enthusiasm points to the religious aspect cf. Revival Mtgs. b. One experiences passions in music by it imitations of the passions. c. The power of music is education. *In rhythms and tunes, there are likenesses close to anger and gentleness and also courage and moderation. As a result we're altered by listening to music. Virtue and Music Belong Together: 1. Music forms moral character in the young by means of habituation. a. It is part of the sweet things. 2. It effects passion in adults thru imitation of pleasures. 3. Parenting isn't as powerful because it relates to the body. 4. Harmonies more directly relate to passions. 5. Music reproduces motions in the soul bec. the soul has harmonies. Education of the Young: Education is like the "rattle of Archytas to keep children busy. 1. For judging. 2. It should not interfere with the severe gymnastics of late adolescence or music in later life. 3. You don't want professionalism; it's vulgar. a. One makes the art more important than virtue. cf. acquisition. 4. The flute is inappropriate bec. it is frenzied and block speech. Harmonies and Rhythms: 1. Music is for education, purification, and pastime strength. a. Catharsis **Progation is cleansing or purging. **Purification is a proper conclusion or end. Melodies: 1. Phrygian harmony is enthusiastic cf. Bacchus. 2. Dorian harmony is ethical. 3. Lydian harmony is ethical. 4. Ionian or Hypophygian harmonies are practical. 5. Aeloian harmony is practical. The Passions of fear and pity along with enthusiasm require catharsis: 1. Some with enthusiasm have a pathological disease beyond the normal tendency of the soul. a. Only certain ones are effected. 2. The cure for enthusiasm is in the tunes of Olympus. a. These tunes arouse the enthusiastic passions in most men which leads to a harmless delight or pleasure which purifies it. 3. In others it calms them, purges them and exhausts them. a. Plutarch's essay on music says that festivals effect should be therapeutic to prepare the soul. That is poetry is the true formation of the soul. Philosophy and the City: 1. Philosophy can't be in the best city. 2. The best for most is the practical political life not the philosophical self-sufficient life. 3. Not politics simply but politics close to philosophy ie poetry and music. a. This is accessible while philosophy is not. 4. The highest life in the city is leisured activity of music and poetry bec. it's the image of philosophy. The Character of Aristotle's Political Science: 1. Political science is equivalent to political philosophy. a. Science is in two parts. 1) Theoretical 2) Practical (eg ethics, economics, and politics.) b. Logic is the preparation for both. 2. Human actions have principles independent of theoretical science. a. Political speech is unscientific to the moderns. 3. Awareness of principles of human actions. 4. Political science evaluates political. a. Advises and exhorts ie determines the good and the bad. 5. One can distinguish between a human and a dog. They have a separate dignity.